Chapter 2 - Standard Patterns

Automatically generated standard library documentation can be found here. Installing ZLS may also help you explore the standard library, which provides completions for it.

Allocators

The Zig standard library provides a pattern for allocating memory, which allows the programmer to choose exactly how memory allocations are done within the standard library - no allocations happen behind your back in the standard library.

The most basic allocator is std.heap.page_allocator. Whenever this allocator makes an allocation it will ask your OS for entire pages of memory; an allocation of a single byte will likely reserve multiple kibibytes. As asking the OS for memory requires a system call this is also extremely inefficient for speed.

Here, we allocate 100 bytes as a []u8. Notice how defer is used in conjunction with a free - this is a common pattern for memory management in Zig.

const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "allocation" {
    const allocator = std.heap.page_allocator;

    const memory = try allocator.alloc(u8, 100);
    defer allocator.free(memory);

    try expect(memory.len == 100);
    try expect(@TypeOf(memory) == []u8);
}

The std.heap.FixedBufferAllocator is an allocator that allocates memory into a fixed buffer, and does not make any heap allocations. This is useful when heap usage is not wanted, for example when writing a kernel. It may also be considered for performance reasons. It will give you the error OutOfMemory if it has run out of bytes.

test "fixed buffer allocator" {
    var buffer: [1000]u8 = undefined;
    var fba = std.heap.FixedBufferAllocator.init(&buffer);
    const allocator = fba.allocator();

    const memory = try allocator.alloc(u8, 100);
    defer allocator.free(memory);

    try expect(memory.len == 100);
    try expect(@TypeOf(memory) == []u8);
}

std.heap.ArenaAllocator takes in a child allocator, and allows you to allocate many times and only free once. Here, .deinit() is called on the arena which frees all memory. Using allocator.free in this example would be a no-op (i.e. does nothing).

test "arena allocator" {
    var arena = std.heap.ArenaAllocator.init(std.heap.page_allocator);
    defer arena.deinit();
    const allocator = arena.allocator();

    _ = try allocator.alloc(u8, 1);
    _ = try allocator.alloc(u8, 10);
    _ = try allocator.alloc(u8, 100);
}

alloc and free are used for slices. For single items, consider using create and destroy.

test "allocator create/destroy" {
    const byte = try std.heap.page_allocator.create(u8);
    defer std.heap.page_allocator.destroy(byte);
    byte.* = 128;
}

The Zig standard library also has a general purpose allocator. This is a safe allocator which can prevent double-free, use-after-free and can detect leaks. Safety checks and thread safety can be turned off via its configuration struct (left empty below). Zig's GPA is designed for safety over performance, but may still be many times faster than page_allocator.

test "GPA" {
    var gpa = std.heap.GeneralPurposeAllocator(.{}){};
    const allocator = gpa.allocator();
    defer {
        const deinit_status = gpa.deinit();
        //fail test; can't try in defer as defer is executed after we return
        if (deinit_status == .leak) expect(false) catch @panic("TEST FAIL");
    }

    const bytes = try allocator.alloc(u8, 100);
    defer allocator.free(bytes);
}

For high performance (but very few safety features!), std.heap.c_allocator may be considered. This however has the disadvantage of requiring linking Libc, which can be done with -lc.

Benjamin Feng's talk What's a Memory Allocator Anyway? goes into more detail on this topic, and covers the implementation of allocators.

Arraylist

The std.ArrayList is commonly used throughout Zig, and serves as a buffer which can change in size. std.ArrayList(T) is similar to C++'s std::vector<T> and Rust's Vec<T>. The deinit() method frees all of the ArrayList's memory. The memory can be read from and written to via its slice field - .items.

Here we will introduce the usage of the testing allocator. This is a special allocator that only works in tests, and can detect memory leaks. In your code, use whatever allocator is appropriate.

const expectEqualSlices = std.testing.expectEqualSlices;
const ArrayList = std.ArrayList;
const test_allocator = std.testing.allocator;

test "arraylist" {
    var list = ArrayList(u8).init(test_allocator);
    defer list.deinit();
    try list.append('H');
    try list.append('e');
    try list.append('l');
    try list.append('l');
    try list.append('o');
    try list.appendSlice(" World!");

    try expectEqualSlices(u8, list.items, "Hello World!");
}

Filesystem

Let's create and open a file in our current working directory, write to it, and then read from it. Here we have to use .seekTo in order to go back to the start of the file before reading what we have written.

test "createFile, write, seekTo, read" {
    const file = try std.fs.cwd().createFile(
        "junk_file.txt",
        .{ .read = true },
    );
    defer file.close();

    const bytes_written = try file.writeAll("Hello File!");
    _ = bytes_written;

    var buffer: [100]u8 = undefined;
    try file.seekTo(0);
    const bytes_read = try file.readAll(&buffer);

    try expectEqualSlices(u8, buffer[0..bytes_read], "Hello File!");
}

The functions std.fs.openFileAbsolute and similar absolute functions exist, but we will not test them here.

We can get various information about files by using .stat() on them. Stat also contains fields for .inode and .mode, but they are not tested here as they rely on the current OS' types.

test "file stat" {
    const file = try std.fs.cwd().createFile(
        "junk_file2.txt",
        .{ .read = true },
    );
    defer file.close();
    const stat = try file.stat();
    try expect(stat.size == 0);
    try expect(stat.kind == .file);
    try expect(stat.ctime <= std.time.nanoTimestamp());
    try expect(stat.mtime <= std.time.nanoTimestamp());
    try expect(stat.atime <= std.time.nanoTimestamp());
}

We can make directories and iterate over their contents. Here we will use an iterator (discussed later). This directory (and its contents) will be deleted after this test finishes.

test "make dir" {
    try std.fs.cwd().makeDir("test-tmp");
    const iter_dir = try std.fs.cwd().openIterableDir(
        "test-tmp",
        .{},
    );
    defer {
        std.fs.cwd().deleteTree("test-tmp") catch unreachable;
    }

    _ = try iter_dir.dir.createFile("x", .{});
    _ = try iter_dir.dir.createFile("y", .{});
    _ = try iter_dir.dir.createFile("z", .{});

    var file_count: usize = 0;
    var iter = iter_dir.iterate();
    while (try iter.next()) |entry| {
        if (entry.kind == .file) file_count += 1;
    }

    try expect(file_count == 3);
}

Readers and Writers

std.io.Writer and std.io.Reader provide standard ways of making use of IO. std.ArrayList(u8) has a writer method which gives us a writer. Let's use it.

test "io writer usage" {
    var list = ArrayList(u8).init(test_allocator);
    defer list.deinit();
    const bytes_written = try list.writer().write(
        "Hello World!",
    );
    try expect(bytes_written == 12);
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, list.items, "Hello World!");
}

Here we will use a reader to copy the file's contents into an allocated buffer. The second argument of readAllAlloc is the maximum size that it may allocate; if the file is larger than this, it will return error.StreamTooLong.

test "io reader usage" {
    const message = "Hello File!";

    const file = try std.fs.cwd().createFile(
        "junk_file2.txt",
        .{ .read = true },
    );
    defer file.close();

    try file.writeAll(message);
    try file.seekTo(0);

    const contents = try file.reader().readAllAlloc(
        test_allocator,
        message.len,
    );
    defer test_allocator.free(contents);

    try expectEqualSlices(u8, contents, message);
}

A common usecase for readers is to read until the next line (e.g. for user input). Here we will do this with the std.io.getStdIn() file.

fn nextLine(reader: anytype, buffer: []u8) !?[]const u8 {
    var line = (try reader.readUntilDelimiterOrEof(
        buffer,
        '\n',
    )) orelse return null;
    // trim annoying windows-only carriage return character
    if (@import("builtin").os.tag == .windows) {
        return std.mem.trimRight(u8, line, "\r");
    } else {
        return line;
    }
}

test "read until next line" {
    const stdout = std.io.getStdOut();
    const stdin = std.io.getStdIn();

    try stdout.writeAll(
        \\ Enter your name:
    );

    var buffer: [100]u8 = undefined;
    const input = (try nextLine(stdin.reader(), &buffer)).?;
    try stdout.writer().print(
        "Your name is: \"{s}\"\n",
        .{input},
    );
}

An std.io.Writer type consists of a context type, error set, and a write function. The write function must take in the context type and a byte slice. The write function must also return an error union of the Writer type's error set and the amount of bytes written. Let's create a type that implements a writer.

// Don't create a type like this! Use an
// arraylist with a fixed buffer allocator
const MyByteList = struct {
    data: [100]u8 = undefined,
    items: []u8 = &[_]u8{},

    const Writer = std.io.Writer(
        *MyByteList,
        error{EndOfBuffer},
        appendWrite,
    );

    fn appendWrite(
        self: *MyByteList,
        data: []const u8,
    ) error{EndOfBuffer}!usize {
        if (self.items.len + data.len > self.data.len) {
            return error.EndOfBuffer;
        }
        std.mem.copy(
            u8,
            self.data[self.items.len..],
            data,
        );
        self.items = self.data[0 .. self.items.len + data.len];
        return data.len;
    }

    fn writer(self: *MyByteList) Writer {
        return .{ .context = self };
    }
};

test "custom writer" {
    var bytes = MyByteList{};
    _ = try bytes.writer().write("Hello");
    _ = try bytes.writer().write(" Writer!");
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, bytes.items, "Hello Writer!");
}

Formatting

std.fmt provides ways to format data to and from strings.

A basic example of creating a formatted string. The format string must be compile time known. The d here denotes that we want a decimal number.

test "fmt" {
    const string = try std.fmt.allocPrint(
        test_allocator,
        "{d} + {d} = {d}",
        .{ 9, 10, 19 },
    );
    defer test_allocator.free(string);

    try expectEqualSlices(u8, string, "9 + 10 = 19");
}

Writers conveniently have a print method, which works similarly.

test "print" {
    var list = std.ArrayList(u8).init(test_allocator);
    defer list.deinit();
    try list.writer().print(
        "{} + {} = {}",
        .{ 9, 10, 19 },
    );
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, list.items, "9 + 10 = 19");
}

Take a moment to appreciate that you now know from top to bottom how printing hello world works. std.debug.print works the same, except it writes to stderr and is protected by a mutex.

test "hello world" {
    const out_file = std.io.getStdOut();
    try out_file.writer().print(
        "Hello, {s}!\n",
        .{"World"},
    );
}

We have used the {s} format specifier up until this point to print strings. Here we will use {any}, which gives us the default formatting.

test "array printing" {
    const string = try std.fmt.allocPrint(
        test_allocator,
        "{any} + {any} = {any}",
        .{
            @as([]const u8, &[_]u8{ 1, 4 }),
            @as([]const u8, &[_]u8{ 2, 5 }),
            @as([]const u8, &[_]u8{ 3, 9 }),
        },
    );
    defer test_allocator.free(string);

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        string,
        "{ 1, 4 } + { 2, 5 } = { 3, 9 }",
    );
}

Let's create a type with custom formatting by giving it a format function. This function must be marked as pub so that std.fmt can access it (more on packages later). You may notice the usage of {s} instead of {} - this is the format specifier for strings (more on format specifiers later). This is used here as {} defaults to array printing over string printing.

const Person = struct {
    name: []const u8,
    birth_year: i32,
    death_year: ?i32,
    pub fn format(
        self: Person,
        comptime fmt: []const u8,
        options: std.fmt.FormatOptions,
        writer: anytype,
    ) !void {
        _ = fmt;
        _ = options;

        try writer.print("{s} ({}-", .{
            self.name, self.birth_year,
        });

        if (self.death_year) |year| {
            try writer.print("{}", .{year});
        }

        try writer.writeAll(")");
    }
};

test "custom fmt" {
    const john = Person{
        .name = "John Carmack",
        .birth_year = 1970,
        .death_year = null,
    };

    const john_string = try std.fmt.allocPrint(
        test_allocator,
        "{s}",
        .{john},
    );
    defer test_allocator.free(john_string);

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        john_string,
        "John Carmack (1970-)",
    );

    const claude = Person{
        .name = "Claude Shannon",
        .birth_year = 1916,
        .death_year = 2001,
    };

    const claude_string = try std.fmt.allocPrint(
        test_allocator,
        "{s}",
        .{claude},
    );
    defer test_allocator.free(claude_string);

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        claude_string,
        "Claude Shannon (1916-2001)",
    );
}

JSON

Let's parse a json string into a struct type, using the streaming parser.

const Place = struct { lat: f32, long: f32 };

test "json parse" {
    const parsed = try std.json.parseFromSlice(Place, test_allocator,
        \\{ "lat": 40.684540, "long": -74.401422 }
    , .{});
    defer parsed.deinit();
    const x = parsed.value;

    try expect(x.lat == 40.684540);
    try expect(x.long == -74.401422);
}

And using stringify to turn arbitrary data into a string.

test "json stringify" {
    const x = Place{
        .lat = 51.997664,
        .long = -0.740687,
    };

    var buf: [100]u8 = undefined;
    var fba = std.heap.FixedBufferAllocator.init(&buf);
    var string = std.ArrayList(u8).init(fba.allocator());
    try std.json.stringify(x, .{}, string.writer());

    // TODO: Remove? @dec05eba: You cant compare floating point numbers exactly
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, string.items,
        \\{"lat":5.199766540527344e+01,"long":-7.406870126724243e-01}
    );
}

The json parser requires an allocator for javascript's string, array, and map types. This memory may be freed using std.json.parseFree.

test "json parse with strings" {
    const User = struct { name: []u8, age: u16 };
    // TODO: Use leaky?
    const parsed = try std.json.parseFromSlice(User, test_allocator,
        \\{ "name": "Joe", "age": 25 }
    , .{});
    defer parsed.deinit();
    const x = parsed.value;

    try expectEqualSlices(u8, x.name, "Joe");
    try expect(x.age == 25);
}

Random Numbers

Here we create a new prng using a 64 bit random seed. a, b, c, and d are given random values via this prng. The expressions giving c and d values are equivalent. DefaultPrng is Xoshiro256; there are other prngs available in std.rand.

test "random numbers" {
    var prng = std.rand.DefaultPrng.init(blk: {
        var seed: u64 = undefined;
        try std.os.getrandom(std.mem.asBytes(&seed));
        break :blk seed;
    });
    const rand = prng.random();

    const a = rand.float(f32);
    const b = rand.boolean();
    const c = rand.int(u8);
    const d = rand.intRangeAtMost(u8, 0, 255);

    //suppress unused constant compile error
    _ = .{ a, b, c, d };
}

Cryptographically secure random is also available.

test "crypto random numbers" {
    const rand = std.crypto.random;

    const a = rand.float(f32);
    const b = rand.boolean();
    const c = rand.int(u8);
    const d = rand.intRangeAtMost(u8, 0, 255);

    //suppress unused constant compile error
    _ = .{ a, b, c, d };
}

Crypto

std.crypto includes many cryptographic utilities, including: - AES (Aes128, Aes256) - Diffie-Hellman key exchange (x25519) - Elliptic-curve arithmetic (curve25519, edwards25519, ristretto255) - Crypto secure hashing (blake2, Blake3, Gimli, Md5, sha1, sha2, sha3) - MAC functions (Ghash, Poly1305) - Stream ciphers (ChaCha20IETF, ChaCha20With64BitNonce, XChaCha20IETF, Salsa20, XSalsa20)

This list is inexhaustive. For more in-depth information, try A tour of std.crypto in Zig 0.7.0 - Frank Denis.

Threads

While Zig provides more advanced ways of writing concurrent and parallel code, std.Thread is available for making use of OS threads. Let's make use of an OS thread.

fn ticker(step: u8) void {
    while (true) {
        std.time.sleep(1 * std.time.ns_per_s);
        tick += @as(isize, step);
    }
}

var tick: isize = 0;

test "threading" {
    var thread = try std.Thread.spawn(.{}, ticker, .{@as(u8, 1)});
    _ = thread;
    try expect(tick == 0);
    std.time.sleep(3 * std.time.ns_per_s / 2);
    try expect(tick == 1);
}

Threads, however, aren't particularly useful without strategies for thread safety.

Hash Maps

The standard library provides std.AutoHashMap, which lets you easily create a hash map type from a key type and a value type. These must be initiated with an allocator.

Let's put some values in a hash map.

test "hashing" {
    const Point = struct { x: i32, y: i32 };

    var map = std.AutoHashMap(u32, Point).init(
        test_allocator,
    );
    defer map.deinit();

    try map.put(1525, .{ .x = 1, .y = -4 });
    try map.put(1550, .{ .x = 2, .y = -3 });
    try map.put(1575, .{ .x = 3, .y = -2 });
    try map.put(1600, .{ .x = 4, .y = -1 });

    try expect(map.count() == 4);

    var sum = Point{ .x = 0, .y = 0 };
    var iterator = map.iterator();

    while (iterator.next()) |entry| {
        sum.x += entry.value_ptr.x;
        sum.y += entry.value_ptr.y;
    }

    try expect(sum.x == 10);
    try expect(sum.y == -10);
}

.fetchPut puts a value in the hash map, returning a value if there was previously a value for that key.

test "fetchPut" {
    var map = std.AutoHashMap(u8, f32).init(
        test_allocator,
    );
    defer map.deinit();

    try map.put(255, 10);
    const old = try map.fetchPut(255, 100);

    try expect(old.?.value == 10);
    try expect(map.get(255).? == 100);
}

std.StringHashMap is also provided for when you need strings as keys.

test "string hashmap" {
    var map = std.StringHashMap(enum { cool, uncool }).init(
        test_allocator,
    );
    defer map.deinit();

    try map.put("loris", .uncool);
    try map.put("me", .cool);

    try expect(map.get("me").? == .cool);
    try expect(map.get("loris").? == .uncool);
}

std.StringHashMap and std.AutoHashMap are just wrappers for std.HashMap. If these two do not fulfil your needs, using std.HashMap directly gives you much more control.

If having your elements backed by an array is wanted behaviour, try std.ArrayHashMap and its wrapper std.AutoArrayHashMap.

Stacks

std.ArrayList provides the methods necessary to use it as a stack. Here's an example of creating a list of matched brackets.

test "stack" {
    const string = "(()())";
    var stack = std.ArrayList(usize).init(
        test_allocator,
    );
    defer stack.deinit();

    const Pair = struct { open: usize, close: usize };
    var pairs = std.ArrayList(Pair).init(
        test_allocator,
    );
    defer pairs.deinit();

    for (string, 0..) |char, i| {
        if (char == '(') try stack.append(i);
        if (char == ')')
            try pairs.append(.{
                .open = stack.pop(),
                .close = i,
            });
    }

    for (pairs.items, 0..) |pair, i| {
        try expect(std.meta.eql(pair, switch (i) {
            0 => Pair{ .open = 1, .close = 2 },
            1 => Pair{ .open = 3, .close = 4 },
            2 => Pair{ .open = 0, .close = 5 },
            else => unreachable,
        }));
    }
}

Sorting

The standard library provides utilities for in-place sorting slices. Its basic usage is as follows.

test "sorting" {
    var data = [_]u8{ 10, 240, 0, 0, 10, 5 };
    std.mem.sort(u8, &data, {}, comptime std.sort.asc(u8));
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, &data, &[_]u8{ 0, 0, 5, 10, 10, 240 });
    std.mem.sort(u8, &data, {}, comptime std.sort.desc(u8));
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, &data, &[_]u8{ 240, 10, 10, 5, 0, 0 });
}

std.sort.asc and .desc create a comparison function for the given type at comptime; if non-numerical types should be sorted, the user must provide their own comparison function.

std.mem.sort has a best case of O(n), and an average and worst case of O(n*log(n)).

Iterators

It is a common idiom to have a struct type with a next function with an optional in its return type, so that the function may return a null to indicate that iteration is finished.

std.mem.SplitIterator (and the subtly different std.mem.TokenIterator) is an example of this pattern.

test "split iterator" {
    const text = "robust, optimal, reusable, maintainable, ";
    var iter = std.mem.split(u8, text, ", ");
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, iter.next().?, "robust");
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, iter.next().?, "optimal");
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, iter.next().?, "reusable");
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, iter.next().?, "maintainable");
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, iter.next().?, "");
    try expect(iter.next() == null);
}

Some iterators have a !?T return type, as opposed to ?T. !?T requires that we unpack the error union before the optional, meaning that the work done to get to the next iteration may error. Here is an example of doing this with a loop. cwd has to be opened with iterate permissions in order for the directory iterator to work.

test "iterator looping" {
    var iter = (try std.fs.cwd().openIterableDir(
        ".",
        .{},
    )).iterate();

    var file_count: usize = 0;
    while (try iter.next()) |entry| {
        if (entry.kind == .file) file_count += 1;
    }

    try expect(file_count > 0);
}

Here we will implement a custom iterator. This will iterate over a slice of strings, yielding the strings which contain a given string.

const ContainsIterator = struct {
    strings: []const []const u8,
    needle: []const u8,
    index: usize = 0,
    fn next(self: *ContainsIterator) ?[]const u8 {
        const index = self.index;
        for (self.strings[index..]) |string| {
            self.index += 1;
            if (std.mem.indexOf(u8, string, self.needle)) |_| {
                return string;
            }
        }
        return null;
    }
};

test "custom iterator" {
    var iter = ContainsIterator{
        .strings = &[_][]const u8{ "one", "two", "three" },
        .needle = "e",
    };

    try expectEqualSlices(u8, iter.next().?, "one");
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, iter.next().?, "three");
    try expect(iter.next() == null);
}

Formatting specifiers

std.fmt provides options for formatting various data types.

std.fmt.fmtSliceHexLower and std.fmt.fmtSliceHexUpper provide hex formatting for strings as well as {x} and {X} for ints.

const bufPrint = std.fmt.bufPrint;

test "hex" {
    var b: [8]u8 = undefined;

    _ = try bufPrint(&b, "{X}", .{4294967294});
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, &b, "FFFFFFFE");

    _ = try bufPrint(&b, "{x}", .{4294967294});
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, &b, "fffffffe");

    _ = try bufPrint(&b, "{}", .{std.fmt.fmtSliceHexLower("Zig!")});
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, &b, "5a696721");
}

{d} performs decimal formatting for numeric types.

test "decimal float" {
    var b: [4]u8 = undefined;
    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{d}", .{16.5}),
        "16.5",
    );
}

{c} formats a byte into an ascii character.

test "ascii fmt" {
    var b: [1]u8 = undefined;
    _ = try bufPrint(&b, "{c}", .{66});
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, &b, "B");
}

std.fmt.fmtIntSizeDec and std.fmt.fmtIntSizeBin output memory sizes in metric (1000) and power-of-two (1024) based notation.

test "B Bi" {
    var b: [32]u8 = undefined;

    try expectEqualSlices(u8, try bufPrint(&b, "{}", .{std.fmt.fmtIntSizeDec(1)}), "1B");
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, try bufPrint(&b, "{}", .{std.fmt.fmtIntSizeBin(1)}), "1B");

    try expectEqualSlices(u8, try bufPrint(&b, "{}", .{std.fmt.fmtIntSizeDec(1024)}), "1.024kB");
    try expectEqualSlices(u8, try bufPrint(&b, "{}", .{std.fmt.fmtIntSizeBin(1024)}), "1KiB");

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{}", .{std.fmt.fmtIntSizeDec(1024 * 1024 * 1024)}),
        "1.073741824GB",
    );
    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{}", .{std.fmt.fmtIntSizeBin(1024 * 1024 * 1024)}),
        "1GiB",
    );
}

{b} and {o} output integers in binary and octal format.

test "binary, octal fmt" {
    var b: [8]u8 = undefined;

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{b}", .{254}),
        "11111110",
    );

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{o}", .{254}),
        "376",
    );
}

{*} performs pointer formatting, printing the address rather than the value.

test "pointer fmt" {
    var b: [16]u8 = undefined;
    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{*}", .{@as(*u8, @ptrFromInt(0xDEADBEEF))}),
        "u8@deadbeef",
    );
}

{e} outputs floats in scientific notation.

test "scientific" {
    var b: [16]u8 = undefined;

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{e}", .{3.14159}),
        "3.14159e+00",
    );
}

{s} outputs strings.

test "string fmt" {
    var b: [6]u8 = undefined;
    const hello: [*:0]const u8 = "hello!";

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{s}", .{hello}),
        "hello!",
    );
}

This list is non-exhaustive.

Advanced Formatting

So far we have only covered formatting specifiers. Format strings actually follow this format, where between each pair of square brackets is a parameter you have to replace with something.

{[position][specifier]:[fill][alignment][width].[precision]}

Name	Meaning
Position	The index of the argument that should be inserted
Specifier	A type-dependent formatting option
Fill	A single character used for padding
Alignment	One of three characters '<', '^' or '>'; these are for left, middle and right alignment
Width	The total width of the field (characters)
Precision	How many decimals a formatted number should have

Position usage.

test "position" {
    var b: [3]u8 = undefined;
    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{0s}{0s}{1s}", .{ "a", "b" }),
        "aab",
    );
}

Fill, alignment and width being used.

test "fill, alignment, width" {
    var b: [6]u8 = undefined;

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{s: <5}", .{"hi!"}),
        "hi!  ",
    );

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{s:_^6}", .{"hi!"}),
        "_hi!__",
    );

    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{s:!>4}", .{"hi!"}),
        "!hi!",
    );
}

Using a specifier with precision.

test "precision" {
    var b: [4]u8 = undefined;
    try expectEqualSlices(
        u8,
        try bufPrint(&b, "{d:.2}", .{3.14159}),
        "3.14",
    );
}

End of Chapter 2

This chapter is incomplete. In the future it will contain things such as:

• Arbitrary Precision Maths
• Linked Lists
• Queues
• Mutexes
• Atomics
• Searching
• Logging

Feedback and PRs are welcome.